In The Organon, the fallacy of Begging the question first appears in the fifth chapter of “the sophisticated refutations, ” where Aristotle believes that this fallacy is deceptive only when similar things cannot be distinguished from different things. On this definition, Begging the question is a circular arguments, in which the conclusion is identically one of the premises. The same interpretation appears in the works of Muslim logicians as well, where most examples are those in which the conclusion and premises differ only in their appearance. In the classical logic, however, reiteration of premises in the conclusion does not amount to the invalidity of the argument. In the present research, which is done with the analytical-analogical method, we propose a structure of the fallacy of Begging the question: it does not involve a simple circle where the conclusion appears in the premises,rather, it involves the claim that the circular relation between the premise and the conclusion is a criterion for the truth of a certain proposition. In fact, the formal structure of this fallacy is as follows: (P→, P)├,P. Given the truth or falsity of a proposition for an audience, this proposal can explain why certain circles are epistemically misleading to the audience, and others are not. Moreover, the argument “if P, then P” will not be rendered invalid in this way neither syntactically nor semantically.

This paper has two objectives: first, to provide an explanation and analysis of Anselm and Plantinga's ontological argument based on the interpretation of William Rowe, a contemporary atheist, and second, to determine the place of the fallacy of " Begging the question" in this argument. After presenting the criticisms of Anselm's interpretation of the argument, Rowe considers Plantinga's modal version to be the most convincing version of the argument and believes that previous interpretations, based on the principle that "existence in reality" is a superior property, are caught in a logical fallacy. Plantinga's interpretation is also based on the premise that God is "a possible being with maximum perfection," and this proposition is true only if God exists in the real world. In this research, using an analytical-critical method, I show that Anselm's interpretation and Plantinga's reconstruction of it are fallacious, and although Plantinga's modal interpretation has logical necessity, it does not prove the necessity of God's existence in the external world. This is because perfection in this argument is defined in a way that falls into the fallacy of "Begging the question”.

In article of “ social factors in mathematical and logical knowledge” The Author shows that social factors are determinant in logical and mathematical knowledge as differences of mathematicians, variety of contradiction in Reductio ad absurdum, deconstruction in infinite values, Wittgenstein`s analysis of Sum, change of the concept of evidence in history, Begging the question of proof of axioms, Begging the question of justification of logical rules by the value tables, Prior`s argument against formalists, absence of preference for psychological explanations against sociological ones, paradoxes of material implication, To appeal to intuition rather than reasoning, the critique of circular reasoning, conventionality of logical rules, harvest paradox … In analysis of this evidences, first, I determined minimalistic evidences as the principle of contradiction, modus ponens, reductio ad absurdum. Second, I analyzed the cases as Infinite values, Wittgenstein`s point of view, value tables, Prior`s argument, convention, Lack of necessity in obviousness of concepts in the obvious propositions, uncertain conceptions… At last I showed that social factors are not considered essential in logical and mathematical knowledge.

There are a lot of debates over the necessity of decriminalization of crime conducts (behaviors) which have no direct crime victims (crimes without victims or victimless crimes) and no serious violations of the society values and norms while they are considered crimes by the legislator. This research has studied two cases of these deviances which are crimes according to article 712 of the Islamic penal code under topics of Begging and vagrancy transforms into crimes (the Article justifies to criminalize them) and provided possibility or impossibility of criminalization of these conducts and after mentioning the proving reasons and opposing ones of decriminalization of these conducts, the result shows that the balance of decriminalization is preferable provisionally.

The investigation presented in this paper is a novel method in question answering (QA) that enables a QA system to gain performance through reuse of information in the answer to one question to answer another related question. Our analysis shows that a pair of question in a general open domain QA can have embedding relation through their mentions of noun phrase expressions. We present methods for recognition of embedding property between a pair of questions by focusing on the techniques applied to match noun phrase mentions in the questions. We then take advantage from the discovery of embedding relationship and extract referent named entities corresponding to the noun phrase expression that are present in the answer of one question. The named entities will then be used as significant terms in the query generation phase of the QA system to retrieve more pertinent answers. Finally, we discuss on data set resources and system evaluation.

Begging as a social phenomenon and behavior. Governments' responses to this phenomenon vary, encompassing a wide range of approaches, from mere criminalization to non-criminalization.In Article 712 of the Islamic Penal Code (1996), the legislator has considered the absolute commission of this act as a crime. On the other hand, Criminalization, is a process based on rationality and is done by taking into account social realities. Therefore, it is necessary to examine other models to assess the position of the Iranian criminal justice system in the face of this phenomenon. Accordingly, a comparative study of the reaction of sixteen countries to this phenomenon shows that the four countries of Iran, England, Wales and Denmark have absolutely criminalized Begging: Eight countries in France, Germany, Scotland, Belgium, Jordan, Singapore, Turkey and Switzerland have criminalized this behavior on the condition that it be disruptive, aggressive and abusive, and that children and vulnerable people are abused, and four countries: Sweden, Norway, Malaysia and Canada have not criminalized or decriminalized this behavior, as the case may be.

Solitude means Begging, asking for money and other such things from people in the streets, alleys, and urban neighborhoods, and it is one of the current social issues and harms that shape the Iranian society. Oneness as an informal economic action or activity can have economic, social, structural and cultural causes. The main purpose of the research is to study the culture of street reciprocity from the point of view of sociological theory, relying on experimental researches. The research method is the type of documents that the researcher has used from articles, books and printed works to answer the research questions. The results show that hanging out in Iran's big cities has become a relatively normal style of informal social activity and citizens have accepted it as a part of the social phenomenon. According to sociological perspectives, street loneliness in Iran is the result of the culture of poverty (symbolic and cultural violence against beggars, cultural deprivation, shame, lost sense of identity,everyday lifestyle, belonging and acceptance in the street subculture, cultural habit),Functional curve is structural (social inability to organize the unemployed,unfavorable business environment,class conflict and gap, social exclusion, family disorganization, collapse of social capital and lack of social identity.

This paper studies socio-economic factors affecting Begging phenomenon in the city of Mashhad. So, sociological and social policy approaches are used to clarify theoretical and conceptual dimensions of panhandling. Also, qualitative method and related techniques such as in deep and unstructured interviews and observation (of ways of Begging) are used to collect the research data and information. The study is based on the argument that the phenomenon of panhandling is concerned with two groups of factors including indirect (environmental enabling) and direct (individual) ones. The research findings indicate that such factors as the very identity of the city of Mashhad from the point of view of religiosity and immigration as well as features of the very beggars such as having an unfavorable physical state, the low level of education, family unfavorable situation, lack of basic capabilities, poverty and unemployment were determinant factors that intensified each other and led to the emergence of inability state and to the acceptance of Begging role. The latter is also enforced and sustained through a socio and psycho humiliating process. On the contrary of the prevailing perspective that blames beggars in moral degradation and lack of laziness, the paper concludes that poverty and insolvency and related variables play higher roles in this process.